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Introduction: The cells of the human body require a constant stream of oxygen to stay alive. The respiratory system provides oxygen to the body’s cells while removing carbon dioxide, a waste product that can be lethal if allowed to accumulate. There are 3 major parts of the respiratory system: the airway, the lungs, and the…

  Digestive System A digestive system is a group of organs working together to convert food into energy and basic nutrients to feed the entire body. food passes through a long tube inside the body known as the alimentary canal or the gastrointestinal tract (gi tract). the alimentary canal is made up of the oral…

The cardiovascular system consists of the heart, blood vessels and the approximately 5 liters of blood that the blood vessels transport. Oxygen and carbon dioxide transport. Supplying oxygen to the body is the most essential function of the cardiovascular system. Disease protection and healing. Hormone delivery. Body temperature regulation: –       Cardio- heart –       Vascular- blood vessels Heart:…

  Angina pectoris is a clinical syndrome usually characterized by episodes of paroxysms of pain or pressure in the anterior chest. The cause is usually insufficient coronary blood flow. The insufficient flow results in a decreased oxygen supply to meet increased myocardial demand for oxygen in response to physical exertion or emotional stress. Angina is…

MECHANISM OF ACTION  Coumarin anticoagulant; inhibits hepatic synthesis of vitamin K-dependent clotting factors (II, VII, IX, X) and co-factors (proteins C and S). Thus the predominant action of warfarin is on the extrinsic pathway of the clotting cascade. INDICATIONS  DVT. PE. Prophylaxis of VTE in AF, rheumatic heart disease and in patients with prosthetic heart…

EXAMPLES  Noradrenaline, ephedrine, phenylephrine MECHANISM OF ACTION  Stimulation of peripheral a-adrenoceptors within the vasculature, leading to vasoconstriction and increased systolic and diastolic blood pressure. INDICATIONS Acute hypotension. Cardiac arrest. CAUTIONS AND CONTRA-INDICATIONS Hypertension SIDE-EFFECTS Hypertension. Headache. Arrhythmias. Bradycardia/tachycardia. METABOLISM AND HALF-LIFE  Metabolised in the liver and other tissues by MAO and COMT. MONITORING  Continuous cardiac…

MECHANISM OF ACTION  Competitively inhibits the activation of plasminogen to plasmin, thereby reducing fibrin clot degradation. At high doses can directly inhibit plasmin activity. INDICATIONS  Menorrhagia. Epistaxis. Thrombolytic overdose. Prevent excessive bleeding (dental extraction in haemophilia) CAUTIONS AND CONTRA-INDICATIONS Thromboembolic disease SIDE-EFFECTS GI disturbance. Disturbance in colour vision. METABOLISM AND HALF-LIFE  Plasma t½ is between…

MECHANISM OF ACTION InhibitNa+/Cl symporter in the distal convoluted tubules thereby reducing Na+ reabsorption and reducing water reabsorption. INDICATIONS Hypertension. Oedema in heart failure. CAUTIONS AND CONTRA-INDICATIONS Electrolyte disturbances (including refractory hypokalaemia, hyponatraemia, hypercalcaemia and symptomatic hyperuricaemia). Addison’s disease. Avoid in breastfeeding mothers due to suppression of lactation. SIDE-EFFECTS Postural hypotension. Hyponatraemia. Hypokalaemia. Hyperuricaemia (e.g. gout).…

MECHANISM OF ACTION  Inhibition of HMG CoA reductase, preventing the hepatic conversion of mevalonic acid to cholesterol. Reduced cholesterol synthesis in the liver results in decreased plasma LDL. INDICATIONS Prevention of cardiovascular events in patients with atherosclerotic disease or diabetes mellitus. Primary hyperlipidaemia CAUTIONS AND CONTRA-INDICATIONS Active liver disease (caution needed in patients with alcohol…

Nicorandil MECHANISM OF ACTION  Dual mechanism of action. Opens ATP-sensitive Kþ channels resulting in smooth muscle relaxation, thereby promoting arterial vasodilatation and reducing afterload. Nitric oxide moiety activates guanylyl cyclase to achieve venous relaxation and a reduction in preload. Direct effects on coronary arteries are also seen. INDICATIONS Prophylaxis and treatment of angina CAUTIONS AND…